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War on Drugs

War on Drugs

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Through the 1950s and 1960s, more than 1,000 research papers were written about LSD, psilocybin, and other psychedelic drugs. Some 40,000 people were given these mind-expanding agents, and great progress was made in the understanding of how they might help people suffering from depression, alcoholism, and the psychospiritual distress. However, due to a series of unfortunate events psychedelics were mired in taboo due to a political agenda ultimately starting the War on Drugs.

War on drugs Psychedelics
Figure 1. The global War on Drugs started in the US.

This witch hunt, which persists even today, started on October 24, 1968 by the US government outlawing psychedelics. This caused a domino effect globally, leading to a 1971 UN resolution criminalising the medicines worldwide. To illustrate this timeline, the table below charts out notable landmarks leading up to worldwide psychedelic criminalisation.

Year Landmark References
3000 ce Es Càrritx cave in Spain contains hair samples with traces of the alkaloids atropine, scopolamine, and ephedrine. Followed by a history of psychedelic use. E. Guerra-Doce, C. Rihuete-Herrada, R. Micó, R. Risch[1]
1943 LSD’s psychoactive effects discovered by Albert Hofmann (16th and 19th April) Hofmann, 1980[2]
1947 Werner Stoll publishes first paper on psychological effects of LSD in humans Stoll, 1947[3]
1950 First English language publication on LSD Busch and Johnson, 1950[4]
1953 American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP) Founding president Joel Elkes publishes on LSD after openly self-experimenting with it Bradley et al, 1953[5]; Roberts, 2008[6]
1954 Aldous Huxley’s ‘The Doors of Perception’ published: documents mescaline self-experiment Huxley, 1954[7]
1956 Term ‘psychedelic’ coined by Humphrey Osmond in communication with Aldous Huxley Huxley, 1980[8]
1957 Term ‘magic mushrooms’ coined by LIFE magazine Wasson, 1957[9]
1958 Identification of psilocybin in magic mushrooms by Albert Hofmann Hofmann et al, 1958[10]
1959 Closed conference held in Princeton on ‘the use of LSD in psychotherapy’, Jonathan Cole attends, an early ACNP president Abramson, 1959[11]
1960 First major European conference on psychedelics; Sidney Cohen publishes positive meta-analysis on LSD safety Passie, 1996[12]; Cohen, 1960[13]
1961 Jonathan Cole (ACNP president 1965-66) expresses ‘very mixed feelings on psychedelic research’ as critical commentaries emerge Mangini, 1998[14]
1962 The Marsh Chapel or ‘Good Friday’ experiment conducted at Harvard under Timothy Leary’s supervision but without institutional approval Pahnke, 1966[15]; Mangini, 1998[16]
1963 Leary dismissed from Harvard; Aldous Huxley and JFK die (both on 22nd November) Stevens, 1987[17]
1964 Cole takes ‘sober look’ at psychedelics in JAMA; discussions on LSD take center stage at 1964 APA meeting; Ken Kesey travels across US taking LSD with ‘Merry Pranksters’ Mangini, 1998[14]; Cole and Katz, 1964[18]; Stevens, 1987[17]
1965 Sandoz stop manufacture of LSD and psilocybin Stevens, 1987[17]
1966 Prohibition of psychedelics and curtailment of research begins in US; Senator Robert Kennedy formally questions this move Stevens, 1987[17]; Lee and Shlain, 1992[19]
1967 Timothy Leary declares ‘turn on, tune in and drop out’ at a festival in Golden Gate Park Stevens, 1987[17]
1970 President Nixon signs Controlled Substances Act, LSD and psilocybin made Schedule 1 Stevens, 1987[17]; Lee and Shlain, 1992[20]

Criminalisation Rationale

The period just before the criminalisation of psychedelics, at the peak of their use, was typified by the 1960s counterculture movement spreading ideas of antiwar, sexual liberation, environmentalism and women's rights. All of these new ideas were framed by the media as threatening traditional mainstream conservatism. This sentiment became most apparent when US President Richard Nixon proclaimed a thought leader of the counterculture movement, a Harvard psychiatrist Timothy Leary as “the most dangerous man in America”. Leary’s mantra of “turn on, tune in, drop out” was seen as a direct threat to the corporate establishment and the consumerist, materialist mindset and the state at large.

References

  1. ↑ Direct evidence of the use of multiple drugs in Bronze Age Menorca (Western Mediterranean) from human hair analysis. E. Guerra-Doce, C. Rihuete-Herrada, R. Micó, R. Risch, V. Lull & H. M. Niemeyer Scientific Reports volume 13, Article number: 4782 (2023). Accessed on 9th May 2023 via: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-31064-2
  2. ↑ LSD: My Problem Child. McGraw-Hill: New York. Hofmann A (1980)
  3. ↑ Lysergsäure-diäthyl-amid, ein Phantastikum aus der Mutterkorngruppe. Stoll W (1947). Schweiz Arch Neur 60: 1–2.
  4. ↑ L.S.D. 25 as an aid in psychotherapy; preliminary report of a new drug. Dis Nerv Syst 11: 241–243. Busch AK, Johnson WC (1950).
  5. ↑ Bradley PB, Elkes C, Elkes J (1953). On some effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (L.S.D. 25) in normal volunteers. J Physiol 121. [PubMed] [Google Scholar] [Ref list]
  6. ↑ Roberts A (2008) Albion Dreaming: A Popular History of LSD in Britain. Marshall Cavendish: London.
  7. ↑ Huxley A (1954) The Doors of Perception. On the author's sensations under the influence of the drug mescalin.. Chatto & Windus: London.
  8. ↑ Huxley A (1980) Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience. Chatto and Windus: London. pp 1931–1963.
  9. ↑ Wasson RG (1957). Seeking the magic mushroom. LIFE Magazine 49: 100–102.
  10. ↑ Hofmann A, Heim R, Brack A, Kobel H (1958). Psilocybin, a psychotropic substance from the Mexican mushroom Psilicybe mexicana Heim. Experientia 14: 107–109.
  11. ↑ Abramson A (1959) The Use of LSD in Psychotherapy. Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation: New York.
  12. ↑ Passie T (1996). Hanscarl leuner—pioneer of hallucinogen research and psycholytic therapy. Maps Newslett 7: 46–49.
  13. ↑ Cohen S (1960). Lysergic acid diethylamide: side effects and complications. J Nerv Ment Dis 130.1: 30–40.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Mangini M (1998). Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research. J Psychoactive Drugs 30: 381–418.
  15. ↑ Pahnke WN (1966). Drugs and mysticism. Int J Parapsychol 8: 295–315.
  16. ↑ Mangini M (1998). Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research. J Psychoactive Drugs 30: 381–418.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Stevens J (1987) Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream. Paladin: London.
  18. ↑ Cole JO, Katz MM (1964). The psychotomimetic drugs: an overview. JAMA 187: 758–761.
  19. ↑ Lee MA, Shlain B (1992) Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, The Sixties, and Beyond. In: Rev. Evergreen (ed). Grove Weidenfeld: New York.
  20. ↑ Lee MA, Shlain B (1992) Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, The Sixties, and Beyond. In: Rev. Evergreen (ed). Grove Weidenfeld: New York.
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